The Castles of Lebanon (30 October 2023)
The Castles of Lebanon
Presented Online
Nicholas Hardwick
Being at a crossroads of political, military and religious events during its history, Lebanon has often been the focus of conflicts, and, as a result, fortified locations have often been constructed in its territory. In particular, the Crusades were a focus of the construction of castles and of other fortifications in Lebanon and the surrounding countries. Castles exist from other periods also, including constructions before the Crusades and the later rebuilding on earlier sites.
The Crusades were a series of wars fought from AD 1095 until 1291, with the aim of freeing Jerusalem and the Holy Land, which is presently largely the region of Israel, from Islamic dominance. These campaigns were initiated by the Roman Catholic Church in western Europe.
Two European orders of chivalry, which had significant roles in the Crusades, and thus in the construction of the castles in the region of Lebanon, were the Knights Hospitallers, formally based in Jerusalem from 1113 to 1291, and the Knights Templars. Both were military orders, and the former was a humanitarian order which cared for the sick in the Holy Land, whereas the latter protected Christian pilgrims in the region. One of the significant figures of the Crusades was Richard I (1157-99, reigned 1189-99), known as the ‘Lionheart’, the King of England, who was a leader of the Third Crusade (1189-92).
The Crusaders were quick to seek the support of the Maronite Church in the region of Lebanon, which, being in communion with the Roman Catholic Church, also welcomed the forces from western Europe because of their shared Christian heritage. The church had been largely separated from the Christian world for several centuries because of the Islamic conquest during the seventh century.
The designs of the castles, which were brought by the Crusaders from western Europe, copied the European style of castle and fortification construction. The earliest ones had round arches, which were characteristic of the Romanesque style of architecture, whereas in the later period of the Crusades, the pointed arches of the gothic style of architecture were used.
One of the differences from the European design was that the defensive parts of the castles in the Levant were significantly more developed than in their counterparts in western Europe, because of the greater needs of protection in a region of continuous conflict. In Europe, the living quarters of the kings or the lords were more developed and the defensive parts less so than in the castles in the Levant.
T.E. (Thomas Edward) Lawrence (1888-1935), the British army officer, who was known as ‘Lawrence of Arabia’ operated in this area during World War I, including marching on Damascus with Arab forces in 1918. He hoped to form an Arab state in the region, and the Arab Revolt (1916-18), which he led, took place with this goal in mind. Prior to the war, he was an archaeologist and wrote a thesis in 1910 about Crusader castles in the region and their relationship to western European architecture, which was published as a book in 1936.
One of the most important structures built by the Knights Hospitallers, which remains, is the Hospitaller commandery of Saint-Jean-d'Acre, at Acre, which is on the northern coast of Israel, just south of Lebanon. Its construction began in the twelfth century and, from the end of the century, after the Crusaders lost Jerusalem in 1187, the headquarters of the Knights was at the commandery until the fall of Acre in 1291. Significant remaining features of the complex are the courtyard, which is surrounded by a series of arcades with pointed arches of the gothic style, and the refectory, that is, the dining hall of the knights, which has large cylindrical columns supporting pointed arches.
During the Crusades, the Order was known for the construction of fortresses in the region of Lebanon. One of the most famous was Krak des Chevaliers in Syria, near the border of Lebanon, which was in use from 1142 to 1271. Its name is roughly translated as ‘The Kurdish place of the Knights’. Like many Crusader castles, it is located where there are good natural defences. It is situated in the strategically important Homs Gap, which connects the cities of Tripoli in Lebanon and of Homs in Syria, and is surrounded by fertile land which was suitable for farming.
This is one of the best preserved Crusader castles in the world and it was one of the major castles of the Order. It became the knights’ administrative centre in the County of Tripoli, which was the Crusader state in the region of northern Lebanon and part of Syria, where they had been granted territory in 1140s. This led to the castle, which was built between 1140s and 1170s, being one of the most significant Crusader structures in the region.
One of the significant parts of the structure, which was built during this period, is the Hall of the Knights, whose interior was remodelled during the thirteenth century. It is situated on the west side of the courtyard in the centre of the castle. Its stone structure features delicate decoration and tracery, that is, the division of windows by stone pieces to support the glass, which are characteristic of gothic architecture in its developed form.
The second phase of building during the thirteenth century made the castle a concentric castle by the construction of the outer wall. A concentric castle is a form which has two or more concentric curtain walls, that is, defensive walls between two towers, and was a type developed in the Crusader states in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries, as a result of developments in siege technology.
The castle was built mainly of limestone and had a fine ashlar facing, that is, large square-cut stones, and its finish was such that the mortar was hardly visible. It could house a garrison of 2,000 troops, which allowed the Knights Hospitallers to exact tribute from a large surrounding area.
Krak des Chevaliers was captured in 1271 by the Mamluk sultan Baibars (1223/8-77). The Mamluks were the rulers of the region from 1250-1517, which is called the Mamluk Period. They were manumitted slave soldiers and formed a military caste, headed by the sultan.
The castle’s chapel was probably built after 1170, and, after the castle surrendered in 1271, it was turned into a mosque and two mihrabs, that is, prayer niches, were built inside, which remain today. It has a barrel vault and a simple apse, that is, the semi-circular east end where the altar was situated. The fragmentary red and blue frescoes, that is, wall paintings, in the chapel are rare examples of Crusader art.
The castle was significantly damaged during the Syrian Civil War (2011-), especially during 2012 and 2013, including the exterior walls, the chapel and the Hall of the Knights.
Not far to the south of Krak des Chevaliers and at the opposite end of the Homs Gap, the fortress of Gibelacar, on the northern slopes of the Mount Lebanon range, was first constructed in the Arab period in the early eleventh century, occupied by the Crusaders in the early twelfth century, and retaken by the Mamluks in the late thirteenth century. It is largely ruined, but has a well preserved tower at the southern end.
A little way to the north of Lebanon, Sahyun Castle, also known as the Castle of Saladin, on the Mediterranean coast of Syria, was fortified from the tenth century, and under Byzantine control until it was occupied by the Crusaders from the early eleventh century as part of the Principality of Antioch, which was an important Crusader state in the region. Their extensive constructions gave it its present form. It was captured in 1188 by Saladin (1137-93), the first sultan of Syria and Egypt, who was important in the Muslim opposition to the Crusaders. It is significant as one of the few Crusader fortresses which was not the possession of one of the two orders, the Hospitallers and Templars.
It is built on a spur between two deep gorges, and is connected to a plateau to the east, where it is defended by a wall. Its surrounding walls are in an irregular arrangement with many towers. Two significant features of the castle are the massive keep and a ditch which is 28 metres deep and was carved out of the rock. It was an important fortress on the route from the city of Antioch and the port of Latakia.
Another important castle was Margat on the Syrian coast north of Lebanon, which was in use from 1186 to 1285. Its name is derived from the Arabic for ‘Castle of the Watchtower’. It was also one of the major castles of the Knights Hospitallers, and was only surpassed by Krak des Chevaliers in power and size.
In Syria, not far to the north of Lebanon, in the town of Masyaf, is Masyaf Castle, which is in the valley of the Orontes River. It is raised about 20 metres on a platform above the surrounding plain, and is fortified by substantial walls. The person who was responsible for most of the surviving structure was Rashid al-Din Sinan (1131/5-93), known as ‘Old Man of the Mountain’, who led the Syrian branch of the Islamic Shia Nizari Isma’ili sect, known as the Assassins, whose headquarters were at the castle. Rashid was a prominent figure in the history of the Crusades. In this case, the structure is not a Crusader castle, but one occupied by the opposing Muslim forces in a territory which neighboured the Crusader states.
In northern Syria, not far north of Lebanon is Shaizar Castle. During the Crusades, the town ruled by the Banu Munqidh family from the fortress. Located on the Orontes River, the castle features a spectacular stepped entrance, a gate in gothic style and significant surviving fortifications. During the Crusades, after the arrival of the Franks in 1098, the Crusader states and the Banu Munqidh rulers were involved in various wars and alliances.
The Knights Templars also constructed many castles in the region. In Safita in western Syria, just north of Lebanon, is Chastel Blanc, which was built during the Crusades by the Knights Templar in the twelfth century. Part of a network of fortifications, it is possible to see Krak des Chevaliers from its roof. Set on the top of a hill, the most significant surviving part is the keep, which dominates the town and is clearly visible in the surrounding countryside. It has walls which are 3 metres thick, and the chapel on the ground floor is still used as a Greek Orthodox church, and the first floor has a dormitory with characteristic pointed gothic arches.
The Citadel of Tartus in Syria is a fortification near the Mediterranean Sea just north of Lebanon. It is now incorporated in the residential area of the town of Tartus. The existing structure was occupied by the Templars in c.1165 and was a significant fortification. It has two semi-circular enclosure walls and moat, and the keep is rectangular in shape with two towers. In total, the castle has eleven square towers around its walls. The chapel was entirely square, unlike the round Templar chapels, which were built elsewhere. An example of the latter is the Temple Church in London, which was consecrated in 1185 and is situated in the area called the Temple near the River Thames, which is occupied by barristers.
The castle of Tripoli, which is called the Citadel of Raymond de Saint-Gilles after the French Crusader commander, Raymond of Saint-Gilles (c.1041-1105), who rebuilt it in 1103, was largely reconstructed in the early nineteenth century by the Ottoman Turkish governor of Tripoli, Mustafa Agha Barbar El Korek (1767-1835), so that little remains of the Crusader castle. It houses the North Lebanon and Aakkar Museum, which has a significant archaeological museum and features artifacts from the region including Tripoli and El-Mina. The collection is displayed in the impressive setting of the stone vaulted spaces of the castle, and is highlighted with descriptive display panels. The history of the Kadisha Valley in northern Lebanon is well represented for the Mamluk Period. The numismatic collection of coins, mainly minted in Tripoli, is a significant part of the collection.
The Archaeological Site of Byblos Museum has a restored Crusader castle in the middle of the archaeological site of Byblos, which has remains of many periods. The castle incorporates a museum which displays the history of the site.
The museum at the important archaeological site of Baalbek, which was opened in 1998, is located in the tunnels beneath the Temple of Jupiter and in the southern tower of the fortress, which dates to the mediaeval period. The section in the tunnels describes the history of the site and the research about the Roman sanctuary. The section in the tower covers the Roman tombs and the mediaeval period of the site. A number of Roman sculptures form a significant part of the display. The museum has been organised by a close collaboration of German and Lebanese authorities.
Sidon was also an important city of the ancient Phoenicians. It is significant for the natural beauty of its harbour. A number of palm trees is a striking feature next to the water. The Sidon Sea Castle, which dates from the thirteenth century and was constructed by the Knights Templars, is a particular landmark next to the beautiful water of the harbour.
Another castle in Sidon, the Castle of Saint Louis, is situated on a hill, which may have been the ancient acropolis. It was built in 1254 by Crusaders from France on the site of an earlier fortress of the Fatimid Caliphate, which ruled the region from the tenth to the twelfth centuries, and was further reconstructed until the seventeenth century. The important French king, Louis IX (1214-70, reigned 1226-70), who was known as St Louis, spent a considerable time there.
Toron, at the town of Tebnine in southern Lebanon on the road between Damascus in Syria and Tyre in Lebanon, was a major Crusader castle, which was built in 1106 by Hugh of Fauquembergues, Prince of Galilee (died c.1106). The lords of Toron were always influential in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1291), which was the state established by the Crusaders. In 1266, the castle was razed by the Mamluks, and the structure today is mainly an Ottoman construction dated to the eighteenth century.
Beaufort Castle, which was constructed from c.1140, in the south of Lebanon, near the north of Israel, and to the west of the Golan Heights, the area of Syria which is occupied by Israel, was built by the Knights Templars. The name ‘Beaufort’ means ‘beautiful fortress’ in French. The castle is positioned high above the Litani River. Due to its strategic position with a view of southern Lebanon and of northern Israel, it was significant in the conflict between Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) between 1976 and 2000. It was occupied by the PLO from 1976-82, and, after its capture in 1982 by the Israeli forces, they held it until 2000. The castle is triangular in shape and divided into two wards, that is, courtyards surrounded by a curtain wall, and has a keep, that is, a great tower, built in the upper ward against the west wall, which is 12 x 12 metres square.
Not far from Lebanon, in the north of Israel, near the Sea of Galilee, Belvoir Castle, is a castle of the Hospitallers, whose construction commenced in 1168. Strategically placed on a plateau above the Jordan River Valley, it was significant in resisting Muslim forces at various times during the Crusades. Its complex nature was revealed by excavations in the 1960s. It is an early example of a concentric castle, in which design it was innovative. It has a square plan and has an inner rectangular enclosure with square towers at the corners. This is surrounded by a rectangular outer wall with square towers in each side and at the corners, which is in turn surrounded by a large moat. It has the best state of preservation of any Crusader castle in Israel.
In Israel, Chastelet was a fort built at Jacob's Ford, on the upper Jordan River, between northern Galilee and the Golan Heights. Its name comes from châtelet, a French word which means ‘fortified gatehouse’. This castle was built in the late 1170s with a similar size and layout to Krak des Chevaliers, and was jointly constructed by the Knights Templars and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, whose ruler was Baldwin IV (1161-85). It was destroyed by the army of Saladin in 1179. Although the remains are not as significant as other castles, there is a wall with several courses of square stones, which have a rusticated, that is, roughened, surface in the centre with a smooth finish around the edges.
This lecture has described various castles both in Lebanon and in the surrounding region. The most important structures belong to the period of the Crusades, but significant fortifications exist from many periods. These castles clearly demonstrate that Lebanon was a region of conflict between various powers in the region and beyond at many different periods.
Sources:
T.E. Lawrence, Crusader Castles (1936), with later editions.
I would like to thank J. Tidmarsh for his assistance.