Lebanon during World War II (1939-45) (8 May 2025)
Presented Online
Nicholas Hardwick
As was the case for many countries in the world, Lebanon was profoundly affected by World War II (1939-45). Not only did fighting take place in the country, but there were major political changes during the war. The most significant of these was the independence of the country in 1943 and the end of the French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon (in French, Mandat pour la Syrie et le Liban) in 1946.
The years prior to the beginning of the war were marked by significant events in the region. In Lebanon, politics of the period were partly focussed on the creation of an independent country of Lebanon, and the end of the French administration. Lebanese politics was influenced by the religious groups of the country. However, the High Commissioner of France in the Levant, which was from 1941 named the General Delegate of Free France in the Levant, was in supreme control during the Mandate.
Most significantly, in 1926, the Lebanese Republic was created, which was a democratic parliamentary republic, and the 1926 Constitution introduced the convention that the three main constitutional offices (President, Prime Minister, and National Assembly Speaker) were usually respectively assigned to a Maronite Christian, Sunni Muslim, and Shiá Muslim, Lebanon's three largest religious groups, respectively. This convention was continued with the unwritten National Pact of 1943 with the establishment of the Republic of Lebanon and continues to this day. Charles Debbas (1885-1935), who was a Greek Orthodox, was the first President of Lebanon from 1926-34. The Constitution was suspended by the French authorities at the beginning of World War II in September 1939.
In Syria, movements for independence had various forms during the period of the French Mandate. In 1925, a revolt against French rule, led by the Druze, Sultan al-Atrash (1891-1982), started in the Druze Mountain in southern Syria and spread over Syria and into Lebanon. Despite initial successes, the revolt was suppressed by the French in 1927.
In 1936, the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence was negotiated between France and Syria. Hashim al-Atassi (1875-1960), who was instrumental in the negotiation of the treaty, was elected the first President of the independent country and was in office from 1936-9. He again held that office from 1949-51 and from 1954-5. However, France did not ratify the treaty, partly because of the fear of Nazi Germany’s emergence, and Syria did not gain independence until 1946.
To the north, Turkey increased pressure on its claim for the Hatay region of Syria, which lies on the Mediterranean coast to the north of Lebanon, and was in the French Mandate. This culminated by its annexation by Turkey in 1939.
To the south, there was the 1936-9 Arab revolt in Mandatory Palestine against the British administration, both with the aim of independence, and in opposition to the increase in the number of Jews in the area, who desired a Jewish state. This was suppressed by the British forces.
World War II commenced in September 1939, and, following the German invasion of Poland, the Germans invaded the Netherlands, Belgium and France in May-June 1940. Since Lebanon had been under the French Mandate since 1923, it was significantly affected by the German invasion and the occupation of France. This led to Lebanon initially being administered by the pro-German government of France, whose capital was at the city of Vichy in central France. The government was thus known as ‘Vichy France’.
General Henri Dentz (1881-1945) was appointed High Commissioner of France in the Levant from December 1940-June 1941 by the government of Vichy France. The President of Lebanon from 1936, Émile Eddé (1886-1949), resigned on 4 April 1941, and Dentz appointed Alfred Naccache (1888-1978) as President. During this period, Nazi Germany was allowed to move supplies and aircraft through Syria to Iraq, where they were used against the British forces. This led to a fear by Britain that Nazi Germany would gain control of Lebanon and Syria.
In order to counter this, British and Australian forces, with the support of the Free French, occupied Lebanon and Syria in the Syria–Lebanon campaign in 7 June-11 July 1941, after which the region was taken over by the forces of the Free French government, that is, the government of France which was in opposition to the Vichy government, and during the war controlled territory in the French Empire, that is, France’s colonies and areas of administration at that time.
During the campaign, the Australian Sir Roden Cutler (1916-2002) received the Victoria Cross (VC), Australia’s and Britain’s highest bravery award, for bravery at Marjayoun and at Damour in southern Lebanon. After a career as a diplomat, he was the Governor of NSW (1966-81), and the longest serving one to date with a term of fifteen years. Another Australian, James Gordon (1909-86), also won the VC at Jezzine in southern Lebanon during the campaign.
The campaign was costly in terms of Australian casualties, since 416 men were killed in little over a month, and 320 Australians are buried in the Commonwealth War Graves Cemeteries of Sidon, Beirut and Tripoli. To place this figure in perspective, 521 Australians were killed in the Vietnam War (1955-75), during the ten-year period of Australian involvement (1962-72).
A significant event at this time was the visit by Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970) in July 1941. De Gaulle was a significant figure in French military affairs and politics for a long period during the middle of the twentieth century. He was the leader of the Free French forces during the war, Chairman of the Provisional Government of the French Republic (1944-6) at the end of the war, and later became President of France (1959-69). De Gaulle recognised the independence of Lebanon, as a result of internal and external pressure.
General Georges Catroux (1877-1969) was appointed by De Gaulle as General Delegate of Free France in the Levant (24 June 1941-7 June 1943) in succession to Dentz’ role. Catroux declared on 26 November 1941 that Lebanon would be independent, but under the jurisdiction of the Free French government. There were elections in 1943, and, on 8 November 1943, the new government took the unilateral decision to abolish the Mandate. The French were opposed to this move and imprisoned the members of the government. As a result of British and Lebanese nationalist pressure, on 22 November 1943, the government officials were released and Lebanon became independent.
To the east, the Anglo-Iraqi War of 1941 was in response to the 1941 Iraqi coup d'état which overthrew the pro-British regime of Regent Abd al-Ilah of Hejaz (1913-58). The short conflict in May 1941 led to a British victory and the increase of the influence in the Middle East of the Allies, that is, Britain, France and their allies.
The desire for independence of Lebanon from France had existed for a long time during the French Mandate. The German occupation of France led to a degree of independence in Lebanon.
After independence was granted in 1943, French and British troops were finally withdrawn in 1946, prior to which the country had become a member of the United Nations, the international organisation aimed at keeping international peace and security, in 1945, and the Arab League. The latter, formally known as the League of Arab States, promotes relations between Arab countries and was founded on 22 March 1945. Lebanon was one of the initial seven members, and at present there are 22 members.
Bechara El Khoury (1890-1964) was a Lebanese Maronite politician, who served as the first President of Lebanon (21 September 1943-18 September 1952, apart from an eleven day period (11–22 November) in 1943). He had previously served two short terms as Prime Minister in 1927-8 and 1929.
The first prime minister was Riad Al Solh (1894-1951), a Sunni Muslim, who secretly converted to be a Shiá Muslim, and served two terms in the office (25 September 1943 – 10 January 1945 and again 14 December 1946 to 14 February 1951). Khoury and Solh established the National Pact in 1943.
The creation of the United Nations in 1945 and the ratification of the UN Charter on 24 October 1945, which required only sovereign states to be members, meant that Lebanon and Syria, as founding members, had the French Mandate terminated on that date and formally achieved independence.
Various locations in the country had existing buildings associated with the war or structures which were built because of it.
An important location during the war was the Rayak Air Base, in the centre of Lebanon in the Bekaa Valley, in the east near the Syrian border. In 1914, a military airport was built by German troops during World War I (1914-8), and it was a French airbase during the French Mandate and one of the most important in the region. Following the Syria-Lebanon Campaign, it became an important base for Free French squadrons and a Royal Australian Air Force squadron was also based there. After the war in 1949, the Lebanese Air Force was formed at the base.
Some Australian soldiers were based at the famous Monastery of Saint Anthony of Qozhaya at Djedadi in the Zgharta District, where a camp was set up by the Australian government.
The facilities of the American University of Beirut (AUB) played a significant role during the war. Its hospital cared for wounded soldiers and the dormitory buildings and campus provided shelter during air raids for members of the university community and people from the city. After the armistice, the Australian forces had recreational facilities at the university.
A significant structure which was built during the war for military purposes was the Dog River Bridge, which is 20 kilometres north of Beirut. It was constructed by Australian engineers from 1941 and has a steel structure on stone pylons. It was part of the railway line from Beirut to Tripoli, which Australian engineering units built, and was important for military transport during the period of Allied occupation.
A significant occurrence during the war, and associated with independence in 1943, was the adoption of the current flag of Lebanon.
Because of its significance, the cedar tree is the national emblem of Lebanon and is portrayed on the flag of Lebanon and on the coat of arms. The original design of the flag was drawn in 1943, at the time of independence from France, when the design of the current flag was adopted. The red and white stripes may have been inspired by the design of the Austrian flag.
The cedar tree had appeared on the flag of the State of Greater Lebanon, during the French Mandate from 1920 to 1943. This flag was the French Tricolour (blue, white and red) flag with the cedar tree in the central white panel.
In my opinion, the design of the present Lebanese flag is also influenced by this flag. We can compare the same design of the cedar tree, and the placement of the tree in the central white stripe, which is bounded by two coloured stripes, one of which is red. By a simple trick of rotating the vertical stripes to horizontal and copying the Austrian flag, the designer of the Lebanese flag has produced a flag which is different from the one under the French Mandate, but which follows the same concept.
As a result of independence, Beirut became the capital city of Lebanon in 1943. In the immediate post war period, it was important in the region for banking and as an intellectual centre, and a popular destination for tourists. Its character remained such until the Lebanese Civil War commenced in 1975. Middle East Airlines (MEA) was founded in 1945 and is based at Beirut–Rafic Hariri International Airport, which opened in 1954. This airport became the most important one in the Middle East.
To the south of Lebanon, as a consequence of the war and the end of the French and British Mandates, and in the lead up to the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, there was the 1948 Palestine war, which had two phases, the 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine, and the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. This had a significant effect on Lebanon, since the Israeli victory led to about 700,000 Palestinian Arabs being expelled or leaving Palestine, and, of them, 100,000 were provided with refuge in Lebanon, where they and their descendants continue to live in camps.
World War II thus had a significant impact on Lebanon, not only because of the military operations which took place there, but because of the political changes in France and those in Lebanon which culminated in the country’s independence in 1943.
Lebanon, like many countries which had been part of European colonial empires and administration, achieved independence in the period during or after the war, partly as a result of the weakening of the power of European countries because of the war.
Sources:
I. Riman and P. Theodosiou, ‘Lebanese villagers fondly remember the 'noble and humane' Anzacs of World War Two’, 2021, Lebanese villagers fondly remember the 'noble and humane' Anzacs of World War Two | SBS Arabic
The Syria-Lebanon Campaign: Syrian Campaign | Australian War Memorial
Australian Lebanese Historical Society Inc.: The Australian Military Campaign in Lebanon of World War II | Australian Lebanese Historical Society Inc.
The American University of Beirut: online-exhibit.aub.edu.lb/exhibits/show/world-war-two/1940-1941/the-theater-of-war-comes-to-le#:~:text=Nightly%20Bombing%20of%20the%20City,and%20tea%20on%20the%20campus.%22